Dear Students,

From now on please write down your assignment as a comment or reply to my statement “Please drop your assignment here.” in the relevant group of yours. There are four group pages available: Banyuwangi Group, Malang Group, Jember Group and Regular Group. If you are a member of the regular group, drop your assignment in the Regular Group page.

After you leave a comment or drop your assignment, allow about three days for me to respond. If your comment has been published along with my response, you should do the follow-ups by clicking “reply” to your own comment. 

Always see and do the assignment of the last topic (the topic written right under this notice). To trace the assignment or discussion development, you can read the topics below it accordingly.

This blog is mainly for QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH discussion (THE MAIN PAGE). To see some discussion on Action research, please click the ACTION RESEARCH tab above.  Do similarly for QUALITATIVE RESEARCH. Thanks.

Regards,

Sugeng

Review of Related Literature

To review means to read. To read means to read aloud or silently the text and think about the content. To think may mean relating the content to the already obtained knowledge or to obtain totally new knowledge. In the later case, you have to make the basic “map” or structure of the new information so that it is ready to be added with later result of literature review.

What can be reviewed?

1. Encyclopedia. This will give you general idea about the topic, but not in details.
2. Books. They will give you details account of the topics, but the content might be not up-to-date.
3. Magazine. This will give you the current situation of the field, but it is not presented scientifically.
4. Research journal. This will give you the latest development of the field (if the journals you read are not outdated) and it is presented scientifically.

How to locate the related literature?

1. Go to the library and check the catalog, and get the books or paper journal you want.
2. Go to the library and use the internet to get access to the subscribed e-journal. 
3. Go to the internet and search the topic with “Google scholar” search engine. It is worth trying.

How to take a note

You can prepare some cards to take a note or just can use your notebook. The important point is that you should write down the title and other data of the literatures, the summary or quotation, and the page. Don’t forget to code your cards or note.

The main functions of literature review are to help you:

1. Understand the topic better so you know exactly the position of your research within the field of the study, so you know the relation of your research with the other parts of the field of the study.
2. Position your research question in a meaningful way, so you can spell out the contribution of your research.
3. Focus the research questions, so that they are not too broad.
4. Avoid unnecessary replication.
5. hoose good research design and methods.

Reading: Donald Ary, et al. ….

Assignment:

Review literature related to your topic. Summarize them succintly. State the position of your study within the related field and the contribution of your study to the theory and practice of the field of study.

Quantitative Research Designs (Updated)

Research design simply refers to the plan for carrying out the research. Quantitative research designs can be classified into two main designs: experimental designs and non-experimental designs.

EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS

Experimental designs refer to the plan of research that involves a treatment. Experimental designs can further classified as pre-experimental, true experimental, or quasi-experimental. They are distinguished based on the degree of control applied by the researcher and whether randomization is done or not. Degree of control refers to the degree of the researcher control over other variables that are not investigated but may influence the result of experiment. Randomization refers to the random procedure in assigning subjects into the control and experimental groups. See the table below:

Design	Control of other variables	Randomization
Pre-experimental	NO	NO
True experimental	YES	YES
Quasi-experimental	YES	NO

If the control over other influential (extraneous) variable is not done and randomization is not done, the design is called pre-experimental. If the control over extraneous variables and randomization are done, it is true-experimental. If the control over the extraneous variables is done, but randomization is NOT done, it is called quasi-experimental.

Research design should have internal validity and external validity. A research design has an internal validity if with the design the treatment can bring about changes in the dependent variable. Some phenomena that threat the internal validity are: selection, history, maturation, pre-testing, instrumentation, regression, and the interaction effect among these factors. External validity refers to the generalizability of the result to the other groups/settings, population or operational definitions.

To discuss about experimental designs, we need to use some terms and symbols.
X = independent variable or the treatment.
E = experimental group (group that receives the treatment)
C = control group (group that DOES NOT receive the treatment)
S = subjects
R = randomization/random assignment
M_r = matching of subjects

Pre-experimental Designs

The pre-experimental designs can be classified as one-group pretest-posttest design and static group comparison. They can be illustrated as follows.

One-group pretest-posttest design is illustrated below:

Y1

X

Y2

Static group comparison design is illustrated below:

 

E	X	Y2
C	▬	Y2

True-experimental Designs

The true-experimental designs can be classified as randomized subjects posttest-only control group design, randomized matched subjects posttest-only control group design, randomized subjects pretest-posttest control group design, Solomon three-group design, Solomon four-group design, and simple factorial designs.

They can be illustrated as follows.

Randomized subjects, posttest-only control group design is illustrated as follows:

(R)	E	X	Y2
(R)	C	▬	Y2

Randomized matched subjects, posttest-only control group design is illustrated as follows:

(Mr)	E	X	Y2
	C	▬	Y2

Randomized subjects, prestest-posttest control group design is illustrated as follows:

(R)	E	Y1	X	Y2
(R)	C	Y1	▬	Y2

Solomon three-group design is illustrated as follows:

(R)	E	Y1	X	Y2
(R)	C1	Y1	▬	Y2
(R)	C2	▬	X	Y2

Solomon four-group design is illustrated as follows:

(R)	E	Y1	X	Y2
(R)	C1	Y1	▬	Y2
(R)	C2	▬	X	Y2
(R)	C3	▬	▬	Y2

Simple factorial design is illustrated as follows:

Level	X1	X2
Level 1	Group 1	Group 3
Level 2	Group 2	Group 4

Quasi-experimental designs

The Quasi-experimental designs can be classified as non-randomized control group pretest-posttest design, counter balanced design, one group time series, and control group time series designs. See the illustration below.

Non-randomized control group, pretest-posttest design is illustrated as follows: 

E	Y1	X	Y2
C	Y1	▬	Y2

Counter balanced design is illustrated as follows:

	X1	X2	X3	X4
1	Group A	B	C	D
2	Group C	A	D	B
3	Group B	D	A	C
4	Group D	C	B	A

One-group time series design is illustrated as follows: 

Y1

Y2

Y3

Y4

X

Y5

Y6

Y7

Y8

From the illustration, it is known that measurement is done periodically (four times) before and (four times) after the treatment. The result of the periodic measurements (8 times) may be similar to either one of these patterns.

Figure 1. Illustration of possible Outcome Patterns in a Time Design

Pattern A shows that the treatment X has an effect. Pattern B shows temporary effect of the treatment. Pattern C shows no effect and pattern D shows no effect of the treatment and the strong influence of extraneous variables.

Weakness: effect of history

Control group time series design is illustrated below:

E	Y1	Y2	Y3	Y4	X	Y5	Y6	Y7	Y8
C	Y1	Y2	Y3	Y4	▬	Y5	Y6	Y7	Y8

The elaboration is given in the class discussion.

 

 

NON EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS

Non experimental designs can be classified into: ex post facto, correlational and survey designs.

Ex post facto research designs

Ex post facto research design or also called causal-comparative research design can be used to test hypothesis concerning the relationship between two variables. Basically, this is similar to experimental research. The difference is that treatment is not applied because the phenomenon observed has occurred in the past and it is not possible to apply treatment to the subject due to ethical reasons or other reasons. This design can also be used to simply see the relationship between two variables.

An important thing to do is to make sure that the variable that happens before the other variable is the independent variable.

The designs:

Design 1:

Independent variable		Dependent variable
Subjects are already known to be different on the INDEPENDENT variable(s)	–>	Test hypothesis concerning the possible DEPENDENT variable

In this design, the researcher tries to see the consequence of the difference of independent variable on the dependent variable. He starts by identifying the differences in the independent variable, then collect the related data on the dependent variable and text the hypothesis.

Example:

You know that some of your students got English lessons in elementary school (in grade 4 to 6) and others did not.

So, you can identify this is the independent variable (previous English lesson experience). Now you can collect the data on the development of their English score from grade 7 to grade 9 as the dependent variable (English achievement development).

Design 2:

Dependent variable		Independent variable
Subjects are already known to be different on the DEPENDENT variable(s)	–>	Test hypothesis concerning the possible INDEPENDENT variable

In design two, the researcher starts with the fact that the subjects have differences concerning dependent variable. Then, he collects data on the possible causes of the difference (independent variable). Finally he tests the hypothesis.

Example:

You know that your students have different ability in pronunciation. Measure them as the dependent variable. Then, look for the possible cause, for example, Arabic learning experience as the independent variable (previous experience in learning a foreign language). And you can relate the two variables.

Correlational Research Design (with two variables)

The design is very simple. However, please be careful. Correlational research design can be used to prove the existence of causal relationship.

 

Variable 1	Variable 2	Testing hypothesis
Collect data on Variable 1	Collect data on Variable 2	Test hypothesis

 

 

Survey research design

Survey is a research technique of gathering data by asking questions to a group of individual (respondents).

Types of survey

Based on the focus and scope, survey can be identified as either census or sample survey. Census covers the whole population of interest.  A sample survey only study a portion (sample) of this population of interest.

Based on the time dimension, surveys can be classified as longitudinal survey and cross-sectional survey. A longitudinal survey is done several times at different points of time on the same group of respondents. The time of measurement can be every year or every two years, or other interval to see the changes over time. This type can be divided into two: panel survey, trend study, cohort study. In panel survey, the same subjects are measured over time. In trend study, the measurement are not done on the same subjects over time, but on the sample taken randomly from the same group in different time. The members of the group may be different. Because the sample was taken randomly, they are considered equal. For example, survey of the SMU LAB students on smoking and friendship is done every two years, with different sample because the previous students must have graduated.

In cohort studies, the sample is taken from a group with the same membership. For example, a survey is done on the topic of the value of independent work. The subjects are the person experiencing modular learning experience. The data are collected when the students where in grade 2, then two years after that, and every two other years up to five times of data collection. The real sample can be different, but they must be graduate of the same school.

Cross-sectional survey

This study asks questions to cross-section sample of the population at a single point in time. For example, the research can ask Grade 7, Grade 8, and Grade 9 students about their opinion of the importance of English at the same time rather than asking student of Grade 7 this year and ask them again next year and next two year (longitudinal).

Data-gathering techniques include: personal interview, telephone interview, mailed question, direct questionnaire, and internet questionnaire.

Assignment: Decide the design for your research idea. Of course, there is only one design that you will use for your research.

Reference: Ary, Donald, et al. 2002. Introduction to Research in Education. Belmont: Wadswroth Group

Assumption and Hypothesis

An assumption is a belief that forms one of the bases for the research. This belief is not to be tested or supported with empirical data. Very often belief is not stated in a research proposal.

A hypothesis is a tentative answer to a research question.

Where can a hypothesis be derived from?

a. from the observation before the research is conducted. This is called inductive hypothesis

b. from the theory. This is called deductive hypothesis.

It does not matter how you derive it, but it must: (a)  state relationship between variables, (b) be testable–remember the operational definition, (c) be consistent with the existing theory/knowledge, and (d) be simple and concise.

There are two types of hypothesis: research hypothesis and null hypothesis.

Research hypothesis. A research hypothesis is usually developed from experience, literature or theory, or combination of these. This is the expected relationship between variables.

Example:

Pak Sigit wants to research the relation between debating activities and argumentative writing skills. First of all, Pak Sigit believes (assumes) that in debating activities, students use their logical capacity to build an argument to support the topic of the debate. Similarly, in writing argumentative writing, students also need logical capacity to build arguments to support the topic of their writings. In short, Pak Sigit’s assumption is the skills obtained in debating capacities can be transfered into writing ability.

After reading and observing the phenomenon, he develops a research hypothesis, “there is a positive correlation between students’ debating activities and argumentative writing skills.” This kind of hypothesis is called directional hypothesis.

Another type of hypothesis is non-directional hypothesis. Example: there is a correlation between students’ debating activities and writing skills.

Null hypothesis. A null hypothesis is the one that states NO relationship between varibales. The function is to let the research test the hypothesis statistically.

Please make the null hypothesis of the above research hypothesis.

STEPS TO TEST THYPOTHESIS

1. Make the null hypothesis

2. select the suitable research method

3. do research and measure the result

4. analyze the data and test the hypothesis statistically

ASSIGNMENT:

Please write your research question, the research hypothesis and null hypothesis. Write them here as a comment to this post. Write also your class after your name at the end of the comment.

Reference:

Ary, Donald, et al. 2002. Introduction to Research in Education. Belmont: Wadswroth Group

Process of research

In conducting a research, we have steps to take. However, there are no obligatory steps. The following is one example of a set of steps:

1. Find a research problem from: experience, literature, or/and theory

2. Generate research problems

3. Generate a hypothesis (hypotheses)

4. Review literature

5. revise research problem and hypotheses when necessary

6. Design the research

7. Conduct the experiment

8. Observe and analyze the data

9. Write the report

Research approaches

There are two main research approaches: quantitative and qualitative. However, we should not force ourselves to classify every research study into quantitative or qualitative only. Every field of study has its own tradition. Quantitative approach originates from natural science and qualitative from ethnology and sociology. Linguistics and literature have their own traditions that cannot simply be reduced into either one of the two.

Please identify the approach for your research idea.

Research paradigms

There are three main research paradigms:

1. Positivism

2. Constructivism

3. Critical theory

Cresswell (2003) proposes the following. With this proposal, we can include action research into the critical theory.

Course outline

This course discusses procedure for planning, conducting, and reporting quantitative research in education. At the end Of this course, each student will write a research proposal for their thesis.
Topics:
1. Research paradigms
2. Research approaches, designs and methods
3. Process of research (Research problem, hypothesis, etc.)
4. Research designs
5. Sampling
6. Measurement
7. Final Project

Activities.
1. Lecture
2. Class Discussion
3. Assignment

Evaluation:
1. Mid-test 25%
2. Final-test 35%
3. assignment and Final Project 40%

Dear students,

Welcome to our blog. Here you will find some important points for our class discussion and home assignment. I encourage you to leave comment or raise your questions here.

Best regards,

Sugeng